History of Education

Abstract This paper examines the rapid growth of China’s science and technology (S&T) sector within the broader context of higher education, focusing on Hong Kong’s crucial yet understudied role in this transformation. While conventional narratives emphasize China’s relationship with the United States, our analysis reveals Hong Kong’s distinct contribution as a vital bridge in China’s scientific development. Drawing on comprehensive data from the Web of Science, institutional archives, university leader biographies, and PhD dissertation records, we identify three key patterns. First, Hong Kong ranks as one of mainland China’s key international collaborators in S&T alongside established nations like the UK, Japan, and Germany, though the U.S. remains the dominant partner. Second, this collaboration shows clear temporal characteristics, with partnerships intensifying during the 1990s as Hong Kong’s research doctoral programs matured and mainland students sought advanced training. Third, the collaboration exhibits distinct geographical patterns, with Beijing maintaining centrality despite distance, while Guangdong leverages its proximity to Hong Kong. Our findings challenge the perception of Hong Kong as merely a finance-driven city, revealing its role in fostering a robust academic community that facilitated knowledge transfer between mainland institutions and global scientific networks. This relationship thrived despite cultural and ideological differences, combining mainland China’s motivated talent pool with Hong Kong’s academic freedom and international connections. By documenting this understudied dimension of China’s educational development, this paper offers new insights into the forces behind the country’s emergence as a global scientific power. ...

Abstract The advent of large language models (LLMs) presents an existential challenge to the education community, as we worry that learners might surrender to the convenience of these intelligent machines, transforming themselves into what philosophers called “a Chinese room”. This paper aims to theorize the challenges posed by LLMs by scrutinizing the intersection of multiple forces of varying magnitude and duration from the perspectives of social sciences and humanities. I argue that the encroachment of smart machines into education is not a novel phenomenon, as the integration of new technologies into classrooms has been a consistent feature throughout the past century. However, intelligent machines pose a threat to the modes of knowing we have cultivated. Specifically, they offer simplified access to vast repositories of past knowledge. By shielding learners from direct engagement with source material, they present information as tangible things in the guise of human-like language. Yet, obtaining knowledge in such encapsulated forms represents a restricted way of understanding the social world. These smart machines, therefore, expose the blind spots in existing educational practices. By reflecting on their particularities, we can further enhance our educational endeavors. ...

Abstract Macao is globally recognized as a high-performing system according to the latest releases of PISA results. Such recognition comprises two aspects: (1) average performance of all Macao 15-year-olds was among the highest in the world; and (2) there is a considerably weak link between socioeconomic status and learning outcomes in Macao compared with other participating economies. This chapter examines the systemic effort behind these phenomena. A brief history characterizes the special administrative region in two periods. Before 1999, the Macao system had long been criticized for its uncoordinated structure originating from the laissez faire regime under the historical Portuguese colonial bureaucracy. After 1999 and to this date, Macao went through a gradual transition from a loosely coupled system to a re-coupling one. The government’s effort is most evident in elaborating an extant legal framework to regulate schools and teachers. Riding a booming economy, the government consistently prioritized educational development. Its expanding and targeted fiscal policy allowed Macao schools to reduce class sizes while maintaining an engaging variety of extracurricular activities. Due to the absence of a central, standardized examination, the government also made use of international large-scale assessments to monitor school performances. The authors argue that both high- and low-performing students benefited from these policies. The authors close the chapter by discussing the challenges ahead. ...

Abstract This chapter reviews the history of China’s teacher education over the past four decades (1978–2017). Different from previous work on the same topic, 1 this review explores an important relationship that has been scantly exam- ined in the existing literature: how teacher education has been shaping and is being shaped by the national development discourse. Drawing on policy documents, statistical data, and research literature, this chapter contends that teacher education has played varying roles in supporting China’s na- tional development during different historical periods. Specifically, teacher education has served as a cornerstone for national reconstruction (1978–1992), an engine for boosting economic growth (1992–2004), an equalizer for har- monizing the society (2004–2012), and a window for envisioning a global agenda (since 2012). On the one hand, the national development discourses continually drive the teacher education system to reform its goals, structure, and practices for preparing educators. On the other hand, the development of teacher education in return supports national development. ...